Goals for Driver Education
The information in the previous two articles and this one and the next one is taken from a research document: Peräaho, M; Keskinen, E; Hatakka, M. Driver Competence in a Hierarchical Perspective; Implications for Driver Education. University of Turku, Traffic Research. June, 2003.
This link will take you to the page on the website where you can download the PDF document: http://www.tri-coachingpartnership.com/reports--research.html.
The last article focused on Level 2 – Mastery of traffic situations. This article looks at Level 3 of the Goals for Driver Education framework.
Goals for Driver Education (GDE) – Level 3 – Goals and Context of the Journey
Level 3 is about the social context of driving, which is an especially important factor when young people are concerned. Social pressure has a considerable impact on driver behaviour, as a driver is never alone on the road but in constant interaction with other persons, groups, social institutions and with society as a whole. A social context in the form of a peer group represents the most important influence on the behaviour of young male drivers and the research shows us that young male drivers had more passengers than female drivers did in accidents where the cause was loss of control, and these passengers were more likely to be their friends. Young drivers especially are not isolated individuals, but part of a closely-knit social structure.
As far as driver training is concerned, the hierarchical perspective illustrated with the GDE matrix demands a wide range of methods in teaching / instruction. Skills for vehicle manoeuvring and mastery of traffic situations are the basis for successful operation in traffic and these aspects should be learned well during driver training. Psychomotor and physiological aspects are important as basic requirements for operations at the lowest levels of the hierarchy of driver behaviour. However, as has already been underlined, the skills that are applied and the choices that are made at the lower levels are under guidance of goals and motives on the highest level. The driver selects the style of manoeuvring and the driving strategy in a certain situation according to his or her goals. In addition to the training of basic skills, driver training should also deal with the higher levels in the hierarchy and take into consideration the driver's goals connected with driving and for example skills for dealing with social pressure during a trip. Training that is targeted at the lower levels only will limit itself to just a narrow part of the total concept of driving.
Modern cognitive psychology and pedagogy does not deny the importance of facts and information. However, they stress an individual's own motivation as a driving force of behaviour, and the importance of being aware of the implications thereof. Mere knowledge of e.g. risks is not enough if these risks are not perceived intrinsically important. Feedback, self-evaluations, and other thought-inducing methods must therefore be employed.
Without feedback the learner cannot evaluate his or her learning properly and adjust the personal goals if necessary. The higher levels should therefore also be addressed at an early stage so that learning (as well as feedback) on all levels complement and support each other. Furthermore, new information and skills are learned by building on old information, i.e. previous knowledge and personal experiences. As these "inner models" guide attention, perception, interpretation and decision making, they should be activated when new knowledge and skills are to be learned. Not doing that would be a waste of energy on the part of the teacher/instructor, as activation has meaning also on the motivational level. Things that can be tied to the learner's own previous experiences and interests are more easily perceived relevant and meaningful.
It should be stressed that the levels in the GDE framework are separated for practical reasons only. In reality, the behaviour and success of a driver in a driving situation is the end result of a continuous interplay between the driver's motives, knowledge, skills and meta-cognition on all four levels. All the levels should be addressed in training. Learners should also be made aware of the important risk factors at each level. Most importantly, regardless of the level on which a particular topic or exercise is focusing, the relevant connections to the other levels should be made clear. Overall, the hard distinction between the three columns serves theoretical purposes only. Teaching skills, acknowledging the risks involved in these skills, and self-evaluation on the personal aspects of these skills and risks, should alternate and complement each other in practice.
Level 3 focuses on the goals behind driving and the context in which it is performed, i.e. why a driver is driving on a certain occasion, where and when, and with whom. Included is e.g. planning of driving route and driving time as well as choice of driving state and driving company. Decisions made on this level have important consequences not only for traffic safety, but also for matters such as fuel economy, pollution and travelling comfort. Choices are made e.g. between whether to go by car or walk, driving in rush-hour traffic or not, decisions to drive under the influence of alcohol or stress, etc. All such choices are related to the purpose of the trip and directed by general motives of a higher order. For example, if the personal emphasis of a driver is not on the trip from A to B as such but more on the opportunity this trip gives him (or her) to show off to friends riding along in the car, then safe driving may become of secondary importance. Good planning of the trip may make the driving task easy, whereas bad planning or lack of planning can make it difficult. Proper estimation of travel time, selection of the easiest route or the most suitable time for the trip, will not only help the driver to save fuel, but also to encounter less demanding traffic situations and thereby lessen the burden on vehicle manoeuvring skills when actually making the trip. A key aspect of planning is, of course, the major decision to drive or not to drive. Such evaluations should be included in driver training because of their direct effect on both quality and quantity of exposure and therefore on personal risks.
The issues to be covered include:
· Route planning
· Avoiding unnecessary driving
· Choice of travelling mode
· Getting information (use of maps, weather forecasts)
· Flexibility (e.g. alternative decisions in case of unexpected roadworks)
· Average speed
· Constant speed and varying speed in relation to total travel time and fuel consumption
· The effects of time pressure and goals of the trip on driving
· How avoidance of rush-hour traffic affects timetables (and fuel consumption)
· Effect of social pressure on driving
· Effect of alcohol, stress, and fatigue
· Motives for driving and their influence on driving environment.
Compared with the two lower levels, the topics on this third level centre to a lesser degree on technical skills as such and to a higher degree on the ability to drive independently. Considerations made on this level are usually made before a trip begins, consciously or subconsciously.
Anticipation of risks at this third level in the hierarchy is connected with knowledge about the necessity of planning and the problems that arise when the driver is not able to plan his or her driving properly. Furthermore, the risks connected with specific goals of the trip or driving context should be known to the driver. If the driver is aware of typical personal goals for driving or habits when encountering problematic situations, he or she could prepare himself or herself for meeting the problems. Risk increasing factors on this level include:
· Stress
· Bad mood
· Aggression
· Fatigue
· Hurry
· Unfamiliarity with route
· Unfamiliarity with vehicle
· Drinking / drugs and driving
· Distraction (e.g. use of mobile phone)
· Peer pressure (social context and company)
· Purpose and context of driving
· Driving environment.
Level 3 is about the social context of driving, which is an especially important factor when young people are concerned. Social pressure has a considerable impact on driver behaviour, as a driver is never alone on the road but in constant interaction with other persons, groups, social institutions and with society as a whole. A social context in the form of a peer group represents the most important influence on the behaviour of young male drivers and the research shows us that young male drivers had more passengers than female drivers did in accidents where the cause was loss of control, and these passengers were more likely to be their friends. Young drivers especially are not isolated individuals, but part of a closely-knit social structure.
As far as driver training is concerned, the hierarchical perspective illustrated with the GDE matrix demands a wide range of methods in teaching / instruction. Skills for vehicle manoeuvring and mastery of traffic situations are the basis for successful operation in traffic and these aspects should be learned well during driver training. Psychomotor and physiological aspects are important as basic requirements for operations at the lowest levels of the hierarchy of driver behaviour. However, as has already been underlined, the skills that are applied and the choices that are made at the lower levels are under guidance of goals and motives on the highest level. The driver selects the style of manoeuvring and the driving strategy in a certain situation according to his or her goals. In addition to the training of basic skills, driver training should also deal with the higher levels in the hierarchy and take into consideration the driver's goals connected with driving and for example skills for dealing with social pressure during a trip. Training that is targeted at the lower levels only will limit itself to just a narrow part of the total concept of driving.
Modern cognitive psychology and pedagogy does not deny the importance of facts and information. However, they stress an individual's own motivation as a driving force of behaviour, and the importance of being aware of the implications thereof. Mere knowledge of e.g. risks is not enough if these risks are not perceived intrinsically important. Feedback, self-evaluations, and other thought-inducing methods must therefore be employed.
Without feedback the learner cannot evaluate his or her learning properly and adjust the personal goals if necessary. The higher levels should therefore also be addressed at an early stage so that learning (as well as feedback) on all levels complement and support each other. Furthermore, new information and skills are learned by building on old information, i.e. previous knowledge and personal experiences. As these "inner models" guide attention, perception, interpretation and decision making, they should be activated when new knowledge and skills are to be learned. Not doing that would be a waste of energy on the part of the teacher/instructor, as activation has meaning also on the motivational level. Things that can be tied to the learner's own previous experiences and interests are more easily perceived relevant and meaningful.
It should be stressed that the levels in the GDE framework are separated for practical reasons only. In reality, the behaviour and success of a driver in a driving situation is the end result of a continuous interplay between the driver's motives, knowledge, skills and meta-cognition on all four levels. All the levels should be addressed in training. Learners should also be made aware of the important risk factors at each level. Most importantly, regardless of the level on which a particular topic or exercise is focusing, the relevant connections to the other levels should be made clear. Overall, the hard distinction between the three columns serves theoretical purposes only. Teaching skills, acknowledging the risks involved in these skills, and self-evaluation on the personal aspects of these skills and risks, should alternate and complement each other in practice.
Level 3 focuses on the goals behind driving and the context in which it is performed, i.e. why a driver is driving on a certain occasion, where and when, and with whom. Included is e.g. planning of driving route and driving time as well as choice of driving state and driving company. Decisions made on this level have important consequences not only for traffic safety, but also for matters such as fuel economy, pollution and travelling comfort. Choices are made e.g. between whether to go by car or walk, driving in rush-hour traffic or not, decisions to drive under the influence of alcohol or stress, etc. All such choices are related to the purpose of the trip and directed by general motives of a higher order. For example, if the personal emphasis of a driver is not on the trip from A to B as such but more on the opportunity this trip gives him (or her) to show off to friends riding along in the car, then safe driving may become of secondary importance. Good planning of the trip may make the driving task easy, whereas bad planning or lack of planning can make it difficult. Proper estimation of travel time, selection of the easiest route or the most suitable time for the trip, will not only help the driver to save fuel, but also to encounter less demanding traffic situations and thereby lessen the burden on vehicle manoeuvring skills when actually making the trip. A key aspect of planning is, of course, the major decision to drive or not to drive. Such evaluations should be included in driver training because of their direct effect on both quality and quantity of exposure and therefore on personal risks.
The issues to be covered include:
· Route planning
· Avoiding unnecessary driving
· Choice of travelling mode
· Getting information (use of maps, weather forecasts)
· Flexibility (e.g. alternative decisions in case of unexpected roadworks)
· Average speed
· Constant speed and varying speed in relation to total travel time and fuel consumption
· The effects of time pressure and goals of the trip on driving
· How avoidance of rush-hour traffic affects timetables (and fuel consumption)
· Effect of social pressure on driving
· Effect of alcohol, stress, and fatigue
· Motives for driving and their influence on driving environment.
Compared with the two lower levels, the topics on this third level centre to a lesser degree on technical skills as such and to a higher degree on the ability to drive independently. Considerations made on this level are usually made before a trip begins, consciously or subconsciously.
Anticipation of risks at this third level in the hierarchy is connected with knowledge about the necessity of planning and the problems that arise when the driver is not able to plan his or her driving properly. Furthermore, the risks connected with specific goals of the trip or driving context should be known to the driver. If the driver is aware of typical personal goals for driving or habits when encountering problematic situations, he or she could prepare himself or herself for meeting the problems. Risk increasing factors on this level include:
· Stress
· Bad mood
· Aggression
· Fatigue
· Hurry
· Unfamiliarity with route
· Unfamiliarity with vehicle
· Drinking / drugs and driving
· Distraction (e.g. use of mobile phone)
· Peer pressure (social context and company)
· Purpose and context of driving
· Driving environment.
